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Holonomic brain theory
The holonomic brain theory, developed by neuroscientist Karl Pribram initially in collaboration with physicist David Bohm, is a model of human cognition that describes the brain as a holographic storage network.〔〔 Pribram suggests these processes involve electric oscillations in the brain's fine-fibered dendritic webs, which are different from the more commonly known action potentials involving axons and synapses.〔〔〔 These oscillations are waves and create wave interference patterns in which memory is encoded naturally, and the waves may be analyzed by a Fourier transform.〔〔〔〔Berger, D.H., & Pribram, K.H. (1992). The Relationship between the Gabor elementary function and a stochastic model of the inter-spike interval distribution in the responses of the visual cortex neurons. Biological Cybernetics, 67, 191–194.〕〔Pribram, K.H. (2004). Consciousness Reassessed. Mind and Matter, 2, 7–35.〕 Gabor, Pribram and others noted the similarities between these brain processes and the storage of information in a hologram, which can also be analyzed with a Fourier transform.〔〔 In a hologram, any part of the hologram with sufficient size contains the whole of the stored information. In this theory, a piece of a long-term memory is similarly distributed over a dendritic arbor so that each part of the dendritic network contains all the information stored over the entire network.〔〔〔 This model allows for important aspects of human consciousness, including the fast associative memory that allows for connections between different pieces of stored information and the non-locality of memory storage (a specific memory is not stored in a specific location, i.e. a certain neuron).〔〔〔Gabor, D. (1968). Holographic Model of Temporal Recall. Nature, 217, 584.〕
==Origins and development==
In 1946 Dennis Gabor invented the hologram mathematically, describing a system where an image can be reconstructed through information that is stored throughout the hologram.〔Pribram, K. H., & Meade, S. D. (1999). Conscious awareness: Processing in the synaptodendritic web. New Ideas in Psychology, 17(3), 205–214. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0732-118X(99)00024-0〕 He demonstrated that the information pattern of a three-dimensional object can be encoded in a beam of light, which is more-or-less two-dimensional. Gabor also developed a mathematical model for demonstrating a holographic associative memory.〔Kelly, M. A., Blostein, D., & Mewhort, D. J. K. (2013). Encoding structure in holographic reduced representations. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(2), 79–93.〕 One of Gabor's colleagues, Pieter Jacobus Van Heerden, also developed a related holographic mathematical memory model in 1963.〔P. J. van Heerden (1963). A New Optical Method of Storing and Retrieving Information. Applied Optics, Vol. 2, Issue 4, pp. 387-392 (1963). DOI 10.1364/AO.2.000387〕〔P. J. van Heerden (1963). Theory of Optical Information Storage in Solids. Applied Optics, Vol. 2, Issue 4, pp. 393-400. DOI 10.1364/AO.2.000393〕〔Van Heerden, P. J. (1970). Models for the brain. Nature, 225(5228), 177–178.〕 This model contained the key aspect of non-locality, which became important years later when, in 1967, experiments by both Braitenberg and Kirschfield showed that exact localization of memory in the brain was false.〔Borsellino, A., & Poggio, T. (1972). Holographic aspects of temporal memory and optomotor responses. Kybernetik, 10(1), 58–60.〕
Karl Pribram had worked with psychologist Karl Lashley on Lashley's engram experiments, which used lesions to determine the exact location of specific memories in primate brains.〔Forsdyke, D. R. (2009). Samuel Butler and human long term memory: Is the cupboard bare? Journal of Theoretical Biology, 258, 156+〕 Lashley made small lesions in the brains and found that these had little effect on memory. On the other hand, Pribram removed large areas of cortex, leading to multiple serious deficits in memory and cognitive function. Memories were not stored in a single neuron or exact location, but were spread over the entirety of a neural network. Lashley suggested that brain interference patterns could play a role in perception, but was unsure how such patterns might be generated in the brain or how they would lead to brain function.〔Pribram, H.H. (2011). Recollections. Neuroquantology, 9(3), 370–374.〕
Several years later an article by neurophysiologist John Eccles described how a wave could be generated at the branching ends of pre-synaptic axons. Multiple of these waves could create interference patterns. Soon after, Emmett Leith was successful in storing visual images through the interference patterns of laser beams, inspired by Gabor's previous use of Fourier transformations to store information within a hologram.〔Emmett N. Leith and Juris Upatnieks (1965). Photography by Laser. Scientific American Volume 212, Issue 6, June 1, 1965〕 After studying the work of Eccles and that of Leith,〔 Pribram put forward the hypothesis that memory might take the form of interference patterns that resemble laser-produced holograms.〔K. Pribram (1969). The Neurophysiology of Remembering. American Volume 220, Issue 1, January 1, 1969〕 Physicist David Bohm presented his ideas of holomovement and implicate and explicate order.〔Globus, G. G., & O'Carroll, C. P. (2010). Nonlocal neurology: Beyond localization to holonomy. Medical Hypotheses, 75, 425+〕 Pribram became aware of Bohm's work in 1975〔(The implicate brain ) by Karl H. Pribram, karlhpribram.com〕 and realized that, since a hologram could store information within patterns of interference and then recreate that information when activated, it could serve as a strong metaphor for brain function.〔 Pribram was further encouraged in this line of speculation by the fact that DeValois and DeValois〔DeValois and DeValois, 1980〕 found that "the spatial frequency encoding displayed by cells of the visual cortex was best described as a Fourier transform of the input pattern."〔"Pribram, 1987"〕
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